Man in space orbit
MAN IN SPACE ORBIT
BY S. P. UMANSKIY
Translation of "Chelovek na Kosmicheskoy Orbite," Moscow, Mashinostroyeniye Press, 1974
NASA TECHNICAL TRANSLATION
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION, WASHINGTON,1974
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Man in space orbit
ANNOTATION
A description of equipment and emergency rescue means used by man in flights of various spacecraft is given; the layout and operation of the life support systems installed on spacecraft are discussed.
Many phenomena which an astronaut encounters are related in the book in simple language, devices for moving about the moon, means of protection from meteoric matter and the effects of radiation and the space suits, in which man can go out into space or onto the surface of the moon, are described.
FOREWORD
The legendary launch of Yu. A. Gagarin in the Vostok spacecraft opened the road in space to man. The first exit of man into open space - Aleksey Leonov stepped out of the spacecraft hatch into the cosmic abyss - also was an important achievement.
The successes in mastery of space in recent years give a basis for assuming that we will soon be witnesses of still greater achievements in the very near future. Repeated use of the spacecraft will become a normal phenomenon. Man can go out of the spacecraft cabin and remain in open space for a long period of time, conducting various scientific observations or working on assembly of spacecraft from separate sections delivered from earth.
A major means of solving many problems of astronautics is the equipment of the astronauts.
This book introduces the reader to the layout of the equipment of an astronaut which is used in executing space flights. The layout of equipment for movement of man in open space and on the moon is told of in it. The space suits of the first investigators of the moon are described.
The life support systems used in spacecraft, as well as means for returning from space are described in the book. Figures and diagrams, explaining the layout and operation of standard designs, are presented.
The brief information presented by the author, on the earth and the space surrounding it, as well as on the effect of flight factors on the human body, are of a general descriptive nature. It will be useful to the reader, in understanding the conditions under which an astronaut has to work.
Many phenomena which an astronaut encounters are related in the book in simple language, devices for moving about the moon, means of protection from meteoric matter and the effects of radiation and the space suits, in which man can go out into space or onto the surface of the moon, are described.
FOREWORD
The legendary launch of Yu. A. Gagarin in the Vostok spacecraft opened the road in space to man. The first exit of man into open space - Aleksey Leonov stepped out of the spacecraft hatch into the cosmic abyss - also was an important achievement.
The successes in mastery of space in recent years give a basis for assuming that we will soon be witnesses of still greater achievements in the very near future. Repeated use of the spacecraft will become a normal phenomenon. Man can go out of the spacecraft cabin and remain in open space for a long period of time, conducting various scientific observations or working on assembly of spacecraft from separate sections delivered from earth.
A major means of solving many problems of astronautics is the equipment of the astronauts.
This book introduces the reader to the layout of the equipment of an astronaut which is used in executing space flights. The layout of equipment for movement of man in open space and on the moon is told of in it. The space suits of the first investigators of the moon are described.
The life support systems used in spacecraft, as well as means for returning from space are described in the book. Figures and diagrams, explaining the layout and operation of standard designs, are presented.
The brief information presented by the author, on the earth and the space surrounding it, as well as on the effect of flight factors on the human body, are of a general descriptive nature. It will be useful to the reader, in understanding the conditions under which an astronaut has to work.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: MAN AND THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT
1. The Earth and Near-Earth Space
2. Man - An Inhabitant of Earth
CHAPTER 2: MAN HAS ESCAPED INTO SPACE
1. Manned Spacecraft
2. SFV Life Support Systems
3. SFV Crew Rescue Resources
CHAPTER 3: ASTRONAUT EQUIPMENT
1. Individual Equipment
2. Protective Equipment
3. Emergency Rescue Means
4. Means for Movement in Space
CHAPTER 4: THE MOON - THE FIRST STATION ON THE WAY TO SPACE
1. A Spacecraft Flies to the Moon
2. An Astronaut Walks on the Moon
3. Space Suits of the First Explorers of the Moon
4. Means of Movement on the Moon
CHAPTER 1 - MAN AND THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT
1. The Earth and Near-Earth Space
The solar system includes the central star, the sun, nine major planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto), their 31 satellites, more than 1700 known minor planets, hundreds of comets, more than 50 known meteorite swarms, the dusty matter forming the so-called zodiacal light and an infinite number of meteors scattered in interplanetary space.
The size of the solar system usually is understood to be the diameter of that almost circular path (orbit), which the farthest of the known planets from the sun, Pluto, describes. This diameter is approximately 40 times larger than the diameter of the orbit of the earth.
The earth moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit. Strictly speaking, the center of gravity of the earth-moon system moves around the sun. The average distance of the earth from the sun is 149,600,000 km, end its average rate of movement in orbit is 29.76 km/sec. The earth completes a full orbit around the sun in 365.256 mean solar days. This is the so-called celestial or sidereal year. The specific gravity of the earth is 11 g/cm at the center, and the average specific gravity of the earth is 5.52 g/cm3; it is approximately double the specific gravity of its surface layers.
An important physical characteristic of the earth is the acceleration of gravity en its surface. For practical calculations not requiring high accuracy, the acceleration of gravity is assumed/6 to equal 981 cm/sec, for the entire surface of the earth.
Atmosphere of the Earth
The atmosphere of the earth is divided by thermal properties into the troposphere , stratosphere, me so sphere , thormosphere and exosphere.
The boundary of the troposphere is not uniform everywhere. Close to the equator, the effect of the earth shows up in the state of the air up through higher altitudes than close to the poles, since the surface of the earth is heated more strongly at the equator. In the summertime, the surface of the earth and, consequently, the air adjacent to it, are heated more strongly than in the wintertime. Therefore, the boundary of the troposphere is higher at the equator than at the poles; it rises in the summer and falls in the winter. The average annual altitude of the troposphere at the equator is assumed to equal 15-17 km and, at the poles, 7-8 km. In the middle latitudes, the boundary of the troposphere is approximately at an altitude of 11 km [11] .
The stratosphere extends to an altitude of approximately 50 km [10]. A large portion of the phenomena characteristic of the troposphere is not observed in the stratosphere. There are almost no clouds or fog there, the wind blows in some one direction and reaches high speed. The boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere is assumed to be the layer above which the temperature remains constant at -56.49C. This boundary is called the tropopause, and it depends on the geographic latitude of the locality and the time of year. The temperature in the stratosphere begins to increase at a certain altitude. This is explained by the presence of an ozone layer, absorbing the energy of the ultra-violet radiation of the sun.
The mesosphere is above the stratosphere (approximately up to 80 km). The temperature in the mesosphere again decreases with altitude. It is separated from the stratosphere by a transition layer, called the stratopause.
The thermosphere extends from 80 to 500-800 km. Calculations and observations show that the temperature here increases rapidly with altitude and can reach more than 2000°C. The boundary between the mesosphere and thermosphere is called the mesopause.
The exosphere (or scattering sphere) is located above the thermosphere. There is such a high degree of vacuum here that gas particles almost do not collide with one another. Some of them, the fastest ones, escape from the terrestrial gravitation field and are carried away into universal space. The exosphere extends to an altitude of 1100-1300 km. The near-earth space, changing into the interplanetary environment, begins further out. The atmosphere is divided into two layers by electrical characteristics: the neutrosphere and the ionosphere. This division is based on the distribution of electrically charged particles of gases in the atmosphere. The lower part of the atmosphere, extending to an altitude of approximately 50-60 km, in which neutral particles predominate, is called the neutrosphere. The ionosphere is located as altitudes above 60 km. It contains a multitude of free charged particles, electrons and ions. They appear under the influence of the ultraviolet and X-radiation of the sun, as a result of which one or more electrons are dislodged from the gas molecules and atoms. At an altitude of 300-400 km, the electron concentration reaches a maximum value. The ionosphere gradually changes into the interplanetary plasma between altitudes of 18,000 and 25,000 km.
The electrical properties of the air in the ionosphere are completely different from those in the lower part of the atmosphere. A distinctive feature of the ionosphere is its effect on propagation of radio waves which can be bent, reflected and absorbed. Long radio waves do not penetrate deep into the ionosphere, but the short waves rise to the highest ionized layers. The shorter the wave , the higher its "ceiling." Ultrashort waves (10 m and less long) are deflected very slightly by the ionosphere. They penetrate through it and go out into space.
Cosmic radiation, which is diverse in composition and power, increases considerably beyond the limits of the terrestrial atmosphere. Under normal conditions, cosmic radiation presents no significant danger to people, since the atmosphere and magnetic field of the earth protect them. However, astronauts in a spacecraft outside the terrestrial atmosphere are deprived of this powerful natural protection.
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Man in space orbit
The size of the solar system usually is understood to be the diameter of that almost circular path (orbit), which the farthest of the known planets from the sun, Pluto, describes. This diameter is approximately 40 times larger than the diameter of the orbit of the earth.
The earth moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit. Strictly speaking, the center of gravity of the earth-moon system moves around the sun. The average distance of the earth from the sun is 149,600,000 km, end its average rate of movement in orbit is 29.76 km/sec. The earth completes a full orbit around the sun in 365.256 mean solar days. This is the so-called celestial or sidereal year. The specific gravity of the earth is 11 g/cm at the center, and the average specific gravity of the earth is 5.52 g/cm3; it is approximately double the specific gravity of its surface layers.
An important physical characteristic of the earth is the acceleration of gravity en its surface. For practical calculations not requiring high accuracy, the acceleration of gravity is assumed/6 to equal 981 cm/sec, for the entire surface of the earth.
Atmosphere of the Earth
The atmosphere of the earth is divided by thermal properties into the troposphere , stratosphere, me so sphere , thormosphere and exosphere.
The boundary of the troposphere is not uniform everywhere. Close to the equator, the effect of the earth shows up in the state of the air up through higher altitudes than close to the poles, since the surface of the earth is heated more strongly at the equator. In the summertime, the surface of the earth and, consequently, the air adjacent to it, are heated more strongly than in the wintertime. Therefore, the boundary of the troposphere is higher at the equator than at the poles; it rises in the summer and falls in the winter. The average annual altitude of the troposphere at the equator is assumed to equal 15-17 km and, at the poles, 7-8 km. In the middle latitudes, the boundary of the troposphere is approximately at an altitude of 11 km [11] .
The stratosphere extends to an altitude of approximately 50 km [10]. A large portion of the phenomena characteristic of the troposphere is not observed in the stratosphere. There are almost no clouds or fog there, the wind blows in some one direction and reaches high speed. The boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere is assumed to be the layer above which the temperature remains constant at -56.49C. This boundary is called the tropopause, and it depends on the geographic latitude of the locality and the time of year. The temperature in the stratosphere begins to increase at a certain altitude. This is explained by the presence of an ozone layer, absorbing the energy of the ultra-violet radiation of the sun.
The mesosphere is above the stratosphere (approximately up to 80 km). The temperature in the mesosphere again decreases with altitude. It is separated from the stratosphere by a transition layer, called the stratopause.
The thermosphere extends from 80 to 500-800 km. Calculations and observations show that the temperature here increases rapidly with altitude and can reach more than 2000°C. The boundary between the mesosphere and thermosphere is called the mesopause.
The exosphere (or scattering sphere) is located above the thermosphere. There is such a high degree of vacuum here that gas particles almost do not collide with one another. Some of them, the fastest ones, escape from the terrestrial gravitation field and are carried away into universal space. The exosphere extends to an altitude of 1100-1300 km. The near-earth space, changing into the interplanetary environment, begins further out. The atmosphere is divided into two layers by electrical characteristics: the neutrosphere and the ionosphere. This division is based on the distribution of electrically charged particles of gases in the atmosphere. The lower part of the atmosphere, extending to an altitude of approximately 50-60 km, in which neutral particles predominate, is called the neutrosphere. The ionosphere is located as altitudes above 60 km. It contains a multitude of free charged particles, electrons and ions. They appear under the influence of the ultraviolet and X-radiation of the sun, as a result of which one or more electrons are dislodged from the gas molecules and atoms. At an altitude of 300-400 km, the electron concentration reaches a maximum value. The ionosphere gradually changes into the interplanetary plasma between altitudes of 18,000 and 25,000 km.
The electrical properties of the air in the ionosphere are completely different from those in the lower part of the atmosphere. A distinctive feature of the ionosphere is its effect on propagation of radio waves which can be bent, reflected and absorbed. Long radio waves do not penetrate deep into the ionosphere, but the short waves rise to the highest ionized layers. The shorter the wave , the higher its "ceiling." Ultrashort waves (10 m and less long) are deflected very slightly by the ionosphere. They penetrate through it and go out into space.
Cosmic radiation, which is diverse in composition and power, increases considerably beyond the limits of the terrestrial atmosphere. Under normal conditions, cosmic radiation presents no significant danger to people, since the atmosphere and magnetic field of the earth protect them. However, astronauts in a spacecraft outside the terrestrial atmosphere are deprived of this powerful natural protection.
DOWNLOAD FREE ASTRONAUTICS BOOK:
Man in space orbit
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