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Woodworking for beginners
WOODWORKING FOR BEGINNERS
A TEXTBOOK FOR USE IN THE TRADE SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SHOPS OF THE PHILIPPINES
COMPILED BY FRANK W. CHENEY
BUREAU OF EDUCATION, MANILA, 1915
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Woodworking for beginners
FOREWORD.
Since woodworking became a part of the plan of manual instruction in Philippine public schools, the need has been felt for a text suitable to the conditions under which this work is being carried on. The standard American textbooks contain much material, particularly as to woods and their treatment that does not apply here; also, the English in them is too advanced for most Filipino pupils.
The Bureau of Education has previously issued two publications dealing with woodworking one, a Manual of Elementary Carpentry for Philippine Public Schools, and the other a printed circular (No. 97, s. 1912) outlining the Courses in Woodwork for Primary and Intermediate School Shops. These publications, while serving the purpose for which they were intended, presented very little subject matter that a pupil could study; furthermore, they do not meet the requirements of the present day. A new Manual in Woodworking for the guidance of teachers has recently been published in Volume III of the Philippine Craftsman and has also been issued as a reprint. This manual is to be used in connection with the text which follows, the two providing both teachers and pupils with a set of directions and instructions for this form of handwork.
The text here given is not original. To the contrary, it has been adapted from several approved publications and has been reviewed by a committee of teachers in the Philippine service who have an intimate knowledge of this phase of school work in both trade schools and school shops. In addition to this, the text has been read and discussed by a representative committee of seventh grade boys. Words and phrases which they could not understand have been either eliminated or substituted by others, except those found necessary to express the meaning satisfactorily. Every effort has been made to keep the English simple that the average seventh grade boy can read and understand it without the aid of a dictionary. This object has been pursued throughout, and, if at a sacrifice of literary merit, it is believed with a consequent gain along practical lines.
The Bureau of Education has previously issued two publications dealing with woodworking one, a Manual of Elementary Carpentry for Philippine Public Schools, and the other a printed circular (No. 97, s. 1912) outlining the Courses in Woodwork for Primary and Intermediate School Shops. These publications, while serving the purpose for which they were intended, presented very little subject matter that a pupil could study; furthermore, they do not meet the requirements of the present day. A new Manual in Woodworking for the guidance of teachers has recently been published in Volume III of the Philippine Craftsman and has also been issued as a reprint. This manual is to be used in connection with the text which follows, the two providing both teachers and pupils with a set of directions and instructions for this form of handwork.
The text here given is not original. To the contrary, it has been adapted from several approved publications and has been reviewed by a committee of teachers in the Philippine service who have an intimate knowledge of this phase of school work in both trade schools and school shops. In addition to this, the text has been read and discussed by a representative committee of seventh grade boys. Words and phrases which they could not understand have been either eliminated or substituted by others, except those found necessary to express the meaning satisfactorily. Every effort has been made to keep the English simple that the average seventh grade boy can read and understand it without the aid of a dictionary. This object has been pursued throughout, and, if at a sacrifice of literary merit, it is believed with a consequent gain along practical lines.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
Bench Tools
- Bench
- Bench stop
- Vise
- Bench hook
- Trestles
- Tool racks.
Measuring and lining appliances
- Rules
- Framing squares
- Try-squares
- Miter squares
- -Bevel
- Dividers
- Combining measuring tools
- Marking gauge
- Mortise gauge
- Panel gauge
- Cutting gauge
- Chalk lines
- Scratch awl
- Knife
- Pencil.
Planes and plane like tools
- Jointer, fore, jack, and smoothing planes
- Parts of a plane
- Circular plane
- Block plane
- Rebating plane
- Universal plane
- Router plane
- Scraper plane
- Cabinet scraper
- Spoke shave
- Sandpaper.
Chisels and chisel like tools
- Tanged and socket firmer chisels
- Framing chisel
- Corner chisel
- Gouges
- Chisel handles
- Drawknife.
Sharpening "edge" tools
- Grinding
- Whetting
- Grindstones
- Oilstones
- Slip stones
- Oil
- Truing grindstones and oilstones.
Saws
- Hand saws
- Set
- Saw teeth
- Ripping and crosscut saws
- The teeth of rip saws
- The teeth of crosscut saws
- Sizes of hand saws
- Panel saws
- Hollow ground saws
- Backsaws
- The compass saw
- The turning saw
- The bucksaw
- The crosscut saw
- Saw filing and setting appliances
- Saw flies
- Saw sets
- Saw clamps.
To set and file a saw
- Jointing
- Filing
- Setting
- Side jointing.
Boring tools
- Auger bits
- Sharpening auger bits
- Augers
- Center bits
- Expansive bits
- Gimlet bits
- Twist bits
- Drill bits
- Bit braces
- Ratchet braces
- Countersinks
- Screwdriver bits.
Miscellaneous tools
- Hand screwdrivers
- Hammers
- Mallets
- Hatchets
- The adze
- The axe
- Sandpaper
- Miter box
- Clamps
- Nail sets
- The plumb and level.
Tools for working metal
- The hacksaw
- Cold chisel
- Pincers
- Tin shears
- Machinist's vise
- Monkey wrench
- Steel letters and numbers.
PART II.
Bench Work
- System
- Accuracy and speed
- Measuring
- Tool equipment.
First exercise
- Rip sawing
- Guiding the saw
- Planing
- Testing planed surface
- Jointing
- Gauging
- Planing to gauge lines
- Squaring with the back saw
- Lining with try-square and knife
- Sawing to a knife line
- Cutting the required length
- Work and waste side of a line
- Block planing.
Second exercise
- Chiseling.
Third exercise
- The bench hook
- General rules for boring
- Fastening with screws.
Fourth exercise
- Half-lap joint.
Fifth exercise
- Half-lap dovetail joint.
Sixth exercise
- Mortising—Proportion in mortising.
Seventh exercise
- Box construction
- —General rules for the use of sandpaper.
Eighth exercise
- Mitering.
Ninth exercise
- Picture frame.
Tenth exercise
- Open dovetail joint.
Eleventh exercise
- Half-blind dovetail joint.
Twelfth exercise
- Foot stool
Thirteenth exercise
- Haunched mortise and tenon joint.
Fourteenth exercise
- Setting hinges and locks.
Fifteenth exercise
Miscellaneous exercises
- Doweling
- Chamfering
- Keying
- Constructing angles
- Beads and moldings
- Cleating
- Paneling.
PART III.
Timber and Its Preparation for Use
- Classification of Philippine trees
- Structure of timber
- Pith, wood, and bark
- Sapwood and heartwood
- Pith rays
- Growth rings
- Pores
- Concentric lines.
Growth of timber
- Cellular construction of wood
- Movement of sap
- Growth of a tree
- Grain of wood
- Markings of wood
- Color and odor.
Preparing timber for the market
- Cutting regulations
- Forest charges
- Grouping of Philippine woods
- List of woods in each group.
Methods of cutting timber
- Logging
- Transportation
- Sawmill machinery
- The process of sawing
- Milling
- Machines of the finishing mill.
Uses of Philippine timbers
- Classification by uses
- Classification by names.
Seasoning timber
- Water in timber
- Air seasoning
- Filing lumber for Seasoning
- Kiln drying
- Water seasoning
- Lumber sheds
- General information
- Protection
- Ventilation
- Length of time required for seasoning
- Definitions.
PART IV.
Wood Finishing
- Sandpapering and preparing for filling
- Preliminary work
- Varnishing
- Filling
- Different kinds of filler
- Shellacking
- Applying varnish
- Rubbing and polishing
- French polishing
- Wax finishing
- Staining
- General information.
PART V.
Systems of Measuring
- Use of metric and English systems
- Measures of length and their equivalents
- Surface
- Volume
- Board measure
- Rules for use of tables in transposing
- Standard sizes of building timbers
- Measures of liquid
- Measures of weight
- Old weights and measures of the Philippines
- Commercial uses of metric and English systems.
-
Classification of Hardware
- Explanatory note
- Nails and their classification
- Spikes
- Brads
- Tacks
- Staples
- Screws and their classification
- Bolts and their classification
- Washers
- Hinges
- Hasps
- Locks and fastenings
- Flush bolts
- Door bolts
- Elbow catches
- Cupboard catches
- Screw hooks and eyes ; Drawer pulls and handles
- Knobs
- Label plates
- Brackets Glass
- Mirrors
- Glue.
PART VI.
Practical Questions
- Bench tools
- Bench work
- Timber and its preparation for use
- Wood finishing
- Systems of measuring and transposing
- Problems in transposing
- General suggestions for estimating
- Problems in estimating.
PART VII.
Wood Turning
- Equipment
- The lathe
- Countershaft and its parts
- Lathes and their parts
- Turning tools
- Sharpening lathe tools
- Uses of tools
- Exercises in wood turning
- General suggestions and rules
- Care of belts.
PLANES AND PLANE-LIKE TOOLS.
The essential parts of all planes are the same. Every plane has a stock or body, a plane iron or cutter, a sole or surface which touches the work, and some method of adjustment to regulate the amount of cut. Different planes have different uses, shapes, and sizes. They are usually named from their use, such as jointer plane, smoothing plane, beading plane, etc.
Four common planes found in every well-equipped shop are exactly alike except in size and are distinguished from each other by their dimensions. They are as follows:
The jointer plane is from 22 to 30 inches long.
The fore plane is from 18 to 20 inches long.
The jack plane is from 14 to 16 inches long.
The smoothing plane is from 8 to 12 inches long.
Figure 23 shows a sectional view of an iron plane. It may be used in describing the construction and names of parts for all four of the planes named.
The skilled workman has no definite rule for the use of any of these planes, but selects the one most suitable for the work to be done. He uses the smoothing plane not only for smoothing surfaces, but for any purpose where he needs a short plane of light weight.
In choosing his plane, a good workman selects it by its length. The length of the plane body has an important bearing on the straigthness of the work. The smoothing plane, if used on a long uneven edge will rise over the high places and settle in the low places, taking a shaving from the whole length and not changing the outline. (See fig. 24.)
A fore plane or jointer plane used on the same surface will hit only the high places at first, cutting them down and making a straight edge as the planing is continued. The fore plane or jointer will smooth as well as the smoothing plane, but not until the edge is straight. Figure 25 illustrates the action just explained.
Planes have various methods of adjustment. The common iron plane has a screw which regulates the depth of the cut, and a lever which is used in truing up the edge. The lever is used principally after sharpening, to allow for uneven or imperfect grinding. Planes having wooden bodies, with the same method of adjustment, are very common. They are not so strong as iron planes and wear out very rapidly when used on Philippine woods.
A circular plane has a thin steel face which is straight when free, but which can be drawn up or forced down by turning a screw, making its face either concave or convex, so that this tool may be used to plane inside or outside curves. Figure 26 shows a common type of this plane.
The scraper plane (fig. 27) is a plane body which holds a common cabinet scraper in place of the plane iron. The scraper is adjusted to the proper angle by means of a set screw.
Four common planes found in every well-equipped shop are exactly alike except in size and are distinguished from each other by their dimensions. They are as follows:
The jointer plane is from 22 to 30 inches long.
The fore plane is from 18 to 20 inches long.
The jack plane is from 14 to 16 inches long.
The smoothing plane is from 8 to 12 inches long.
Figure 23 shows a sectional view of an iron plane. It may be used in describing the construction and names of parts for all four of the planes named.
The skilled workman has no definite rule for the use of any of these planes, but selects the one most suitable for the work to be done. He uses the smoothing plane not only for smoothing surfaces, but for any purpose where he needs a short plane of light weight.
In choosing his plane, a good workman selects it by its length. The length of the plane body has an important bearing on the straigthness of the work. The smoothing plane, if used on a long uneven edge will rise over the high places and settle in the low places, taking a shaving from the whole length and not changing the outline. (See fig. 24.)
A fore plane or jointer plane used on the same surface will hit only the high places at first, cutting them down and making a straight edge as the planing is continued. The fore plane or jointer will smooth as well as the smoothing plane, but not until the edge is straight. Figure 25 illustrates the action just explained.
Planes have various methods of adjustment. The common iron plane has a screw which regulates the depth of the cut, and a lever which is used in truing up the edge. The lever is used principally after sharpening, to allow for uneven or imperfect grinding. Planes having wooden bodies, with the same method of adjustment, are very common. They are not so strong as iron planes and wear out very rapidly when used on Philippine woods.
A circular plane has a thin steel face which is straight when free, but which can be drawn up or forced down by turning a screw, making its face either concave or convex, so that this tool may be used to plane inside or outside curves. Figure 26 shows a common type of this plane.
The scraper plane (fig. 27) is a plane body which holds a common cabinet scraper in place of the plane iron. The scraper is adjusted to the proper angle by means of a set screw.
Block planes are made in many forms, of which a common type is shown in figure 28. They are chiefly intended for use in planing across end grain. They generally have a single plane iron, turned with the beveled side up. This construction makes them unsuitable for planing with the grain, as their action is more like that of a scraper than a plane. In the model shown, the opening may be made narrow or wide, as desired. The depth of the cut is regulated by a set screw.
The rabbeting plane is so constructed that the cutting edge is the full width of the plane body. This allows the plane to be used in cutting into a corner, where the angle is not less than 90 degrees. The rabbeting plane is adjusted in exactly the same manner as the jack plane. Figure 29 shows a standard type of rabbeting plane; many other forms of this plane are made.
The universal plane is a combination of several planes. Before the universal plane was invented, separate planes were made for each purpose. It is supplied with a large variety of cutters.- Figure 30 shows a common type of this plane.
The router plane is a special plane used for removing the waste material between two saw cuts across the grain. The cutter is made in the form of a hook which drops below the guiding surfaces of the plane to any desired depth. The router plane is pushed by two handles common form of this plane.
The cabinet scraper is a rectangular piece of steel made of saw plate. It is sharpened by grinding or filing the edge to a right angle. If smooth work is to be done, the sharpening may be finished by whetting on the oilstone or by rubbing with another piece of steel, such as the side of a chisel, until the edge is turned over. The latter is the common practice in working with soft or medium-hard woods. Two cutting edges are produced at once when it is sharpened at a right angle. " When a sharper cutting edge is desired, the angle is changed as shown in figure 32, but this requires more work to keep the scraper in order and has no special advantage.
The spokeshave has the same action as the plane, although it is not usually classified with planes. Figure 33 shows a common form of this tool. It has a very small guiding surface, and a cutter which is regulated by a set screw. The spokeshave belongs to the wheel right shop, but it is a handy tool for smoothing irregular surfaces on all kinds of work. In use it is pulled or pushed by the workman by means of two handles.
Sandpaper, while not usually spoken of as a tool, is somewhat like a plane in its action and is used after the plane or scraper to remove rough spots that still remain on the surface. It is made of very hard, fine sand glued on a sheet of paper and will cut a small amount of wood if used long enough. The most important thing to remember about sandpaper is when not to use it. Since it is composed of very hard sand, it should never be applied to work until all tool work has been finished, for the fine particles of sand stick to the surface of the wood and dull very rapidly any tool that is used on it. Sandpaper should always be folded tightly over a block of wood which fits the surface to be sanded and should be passed over the wood in the direction of the grain.
The rabbeting plane is so constructed that the cutting edge is the full width of the plane body. This allows the plane to be used in cutting into a corner, where the angle is not less than 90 degrees. The rabbeting plane is adjusted in exactly the same manner as the jack plane. Figure 29 shows a standard type of rabbeting plane; many other forms of this plane are made.
The universal plane is a combination of several planes. Before the universal plane was invented, separate planes were made for each purpose. It is supplied with a large variety of cutters.- Figure 30 shows a common type of this plane.
The router plane is a special plane used for removing the waste material between two saw cuts across the grain. The cutter is made in the form of a hook which drops below the guiding surfaces of the plane to any desired depth. The router plane is pushed by two handles common form of this plane.
The cabinet scraper is a rectangular piece of steel made of saw plate. It is sharpened by grinding or filing the edge to a right angle. If smooth work is to be done, the sharpening may be finished by whetting on the oilstone or by rubbing with another piece of steel, such as the side of a chisel, until the edge is turned over. The latter is the common practice in working with soft or medium-hard woods. Two cutting edges are produced at once when it is sharpened at a right angle. " When a sharper cutting edge is desired, the angle is changed as shown in figure 32, but this requires more work to keep the scraper in order and has no special advantage.
The spokeshave has the same action as the plane, although it is not usually classified with planes. Figure 33 shows a common form of this tool. It has a very small guiding surface, and a cutter which is regulated by a set screw. The spokeshave belongs to the wheel right shop, but it is a handy tool for smoothing irregular surfaces on all kinds of work. In use it is pulled or pushed by the workman by means of two handles.
Sandpaper, while not usually spoken of as a tool, is somewhat like a plane in its action and is used after the plane or scraper to remove rough spots that still remain on the surface. It is made of very hard, fine sand glued on a sheet of paper and will cut a small amount of wood if used long enough. The most important thing to remember about sandpaper is when not to use it. Since it is composed of very hard sand, it should never be applied to work until all tool work has been finished, for the fine particles of sand stick to the surface of the wood and dull very rapidly any tool that is used on it. Sandpaper should always be folded tightly over a block of wood which fits the surface to be sanded and should be passed over the wood in the direction of the grain.
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